Institutionalized Ritual in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson

Shirley Jackson’s The Lottery, is a terrifying, tension filled masterpiece of an ancient human practice set present day America, 1948. Jackson’s dark, short story is about a rural farming village on the east coast, who, like other villages around them, conduct a yearly â€Å"lottery.† It begins in the town square in the month of June, where the schoolchildren are gathering stones while awaiting the arrival of their respective families. When the lottery is formally started, roll call is initiated followed by that particular person walking up to the â€Å"black box† and removing a slip of paper without looking at it. Once the names of all the villagers are called, everyone looks at their own slips of paper, even the woman and children. The villager with the black circle is the winner of that year’s lottery and as such, is chosen to die by stoning from the other villagers. It is important to note that The Lottery is written just after World War II, in the years following the holocaust. Jackson moves to reconstruct how Germans, at the time, were able to turn a blind eye and accept a barbaric act of purging their neighbors as a societal norm. The reaction to this short story made Shirley Jackson famous; she set off emotional waves coast to coast of hatred and denial in regards to the meaning of the text. Through a Marxism analysis, it is easier to understand how a society as a whole accepts an institutionalized ritual as a part of everyday life. Shirley Jackson’s The Lottery was publishedShow MoreRelatedThe Theme Of Luck In The Lottery And The Rocking Horse Winner1514 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Thesis Statement This paper will examine the theme of luck in both The Lottery and The Rocking Horse Winner and show how in both narratives good luck and bad luck are excuses for good and bad decisions. Outline Introduction The Theme of Luck How Both Stories Use the Theme of Luck to Unearth the Real Causes of Tragedy in Peoples Lives The Lottery and Institutionalized Stoning The Sinful Nature of Men The Inversion of the Golden Rule Mrs. Hutchinsons Death Whose Fault?

Cinderella Man Free Essays

I am James J. Braddock. They call me the Cinderella Man. We will write a custom essay sample on Cinderella Man or any similar topic only for you Order Now The archetype of all who followed. I was born and raised in New York’s infamous hell’s kitchen. I have always dreamt of defying insurmountable odds. Yet I haven’t always done it on the coliseum called Madison Square Garden just a couple of blocks here from West 48th street. My boxing career had its up’s and down’s. You might be thinking why I was raised in hell’s kitchen but my name doesn’t sound like an American. Yes, I am Irish yet my family wasn’t affluent just like most Irish immigrants in America. My parents weren’t capable of sending me in a catholic private school. Play football for Knute Rockne’s Fighting Irish of Notre Dame? Tough luck! The only way I would be admitted in that private school is to rob a bank. But that’s not the right way of doing things. That’s not the way I do things. I thrive in adversity. I didn’t earn my nickname for nothing. I earned my monicker the hard way, and believe me it was no fairy tale. From a poor local fighter in New York to the heavyweight champion of the world, do you think it was a fairy tale? I gave up boxing for quite some time. I had to. The crisis known as the Great Depression has engulfed and overwhelmed the country and its people. It was survival of the fittest and the removal of the unfit. I had to do a bevy of blue-collar jobs just to provide food on the table for my family. â€Å"Family comes first. Boxing can wait.† I said to myself. Yet I never stopped dreaming on how to return to boxing and realizing my dream. I always asked myself: how would someone like me perform a feat like that when people are overwhelmed by grief and sadness? America was bleak and desolate. Was I America? No. I am Braddock. James Braddock is from hell’s kitchen. One day, I had a chance to show the world what I can do inside the ring again. I was pitted with the ranked tow contender for they heavyweight champion of the world. I must admit, those sly promoters saw me as a mere punching bag just to get the show going. After a few minutes, the second best boxer in the world was kissing the floor of the ring, and I was standing there with my arms raised by the astounded referee while the amazed crowd threw a deafening set of applause. There was hope after all in this Great Depression. They gave me hope. I gave them hope as well. My Humble Beginnings When I reached 21 in 1926, I decided to turn pro. Ii wasn’t easy for a neophyte boxer like me. I had my first break in the light heavy weight division, and after a couple of wins and losses, I had the chance to fight the champ – Tommy Loughran. It didn’t go well for me. I was considered the underdog. Loughran pummelled me in a heartbreaking 15-round decision that ended with my defeat. The loss made me question myself. I drowned in depression because my right hand which I considered my bestfriend was severely fractured. And as if it couldn’t get any worse, America was on the verge of being defeated as well. In 1929, the stock market crashed and the world saw a dramatic economic downfall. A plethora of industries and its exportation of goods by countries were affected. Rural areas and the farming industry were hit hard. Cities like New York halted all construction and industrial business affairs were on the brink of massive employee lay-offs. The Big Apple was being rotten by the Great Depression (Estate of James J. Braddock, 2008) I didn’t let the Great Depression overwhelm me. I thought that one man can make a difference in this period of grief and despair. I had to pull myself and my family from being engulfed by this God-damned depression. I had to give up boxing and worked as a longshoreman. During my stint as a longshoreman, I developed increased strength on my left hand which I frequently use rather than my right hand. My right hand was my bestfriend, but my left hand was my pride. Like when I returned the money which we received from the government which was inspired by the Catholic Worker Movement to aid the homeless and starving at that time. Homeless? I returned the relief money to them. Call it whatever you want. Pride? Perhaps for you it was. But for me it was more than pride. If I received any monetary help from anyone without working for it, I considered myself a loser. In 1934, my luck changed and I had huge upset victories against Corn Griffin and John Henry Lewis. God was indeed good. This paved the way for my greatest bout ever. A match against the heavyweight champion of the world – Max Baer (Howard, 2005). My Sweetest Victory: Max Baer After I downed Griffin and Lewis in 1934, people began calling me the Cinderella Man. My huge comeback to boxing was much celebrated than any sports event in the country. On March 22, 1935, I had again the chance to redeem myself to the world. Art Lansky was supposed to have a title bout against world heavyweight champion Max Baer. Lansky was too clumsy to break his nose just before the bout. I was the replacement (Howard, 2005). Baer, from what I heard is brutal and relentless whether inside or outside the ring. The guy almost killed two of his opponents. Is he human? I kid myself. Baer already killed a man in the ring, by the name of Frankie Campbell. I didn’t believe he intended to kill Campbell though. I’ve always believe that all men who thrive in violence has always a hint of a funny bone in himself. Specially in this Great Depression, a joke can always command victory over a sea of tears. Before the fight, I overheard Baer’s handlers who boasted that they picked me to be the replacement because they thought I was a walk-in-the-park opponent for Baer. I was irked. â€Å"Braddock is no loser.† I told myself. I’m tired of losing. I had to fight like its breathing. I had to box for my family. I had to breathe for them. After this thought fuelled my enraged mind, I suddenly found myself inside the ring with Baer. Waiting for the bell to ring, I pondered on how I got here and remembered what I’m here for. â€Å"Ding!† The bell rang. It was the linchpin for this slugfest of two pugs. But it wasn’t a mere bout for me. It was redemption. We exchanged blows and traded punches. I retaliated with spirit. After a few minutes, I saw myself standing again. And Baer was kissing the ring pavement. I saw the millions of people giving me the applause I yearned for years. Then I realized this wasn’t my victory alone. This was America’s victory. I am the Cinderella Man.   The archetype of all who followed. References Howard,Ron.(2005). Cinderella Man. Estate of James J. Braddock. (2008). Biography of James J. Braddock. Retrieved February 10,2008, from http://www.jamesjbraddock.com/                                                                                                                                           How to cite Cinderella Man, Essay examples

Coca Cola - Business Corporate Governance Case Study

Question: Describe about the Business Corporate Governance for Coca Cola? Answer: Introduction: Coca Cola is providing its customer varieties of flavours with the position of number one and Fanta, sprite and Diet Coke at number three. Coca Cola also operates worlds most pervading distribution systems. More than 200 countries across the globe it offers nearly 400 products on beverage. Corporate governance refers to the method, processes and relation through which the corporate control their functions. It aims at identifying the allotment of rights and responsibilities amongst the different stature of the corporate level. They include the managers, creditors, shareholders, auditors etc. It includes objectives and plans through which the set goals are achieved. Governance includes policy making, taking actions and then evaluating the decisions and actions. Corporate governance practices are influenced when a need to align with the interest of the stakeholder arises. Company Background: The well-known Company Coca Cola is worlds most renowned and number one company for making soft drinks. Every dayCoca Cola sells 1.3 billion beverages. The red-white trade mark is the well-known brand symbol all over the world. Since the foundation of Coca Cola, its head quarter is in Atlanta. Coca Cola is providing its customer varieties of flavours with the position of number one and Fanta, sprite and Diet Coke at number three. Coca Cola also operates worlds most pervading distribution systems. More than 200 countries across the globe it offers nearly 400 products on beverage. There are sales about 70 percent, which are produced outside North-America. Revenues broke down as the under mentioned manner(Baye, 2000): Country Revenue Middle east, Europe and Eurasia Revenue of 31% Asia Revenue of 24 % North America Revenue of 30 % Latin America (included Mexico) Revenue of 10% Africa Revenue of 4% There are various products, such as carbonated beverage (Baraqs, Fresca, Cherry and vanilla cock); Sports drinks (Aquarius), juice drinks and Juices (e.g. Maaza, Bibo etc.); bottled waters , Teas, andCoffees. Even the company have the rights Dr. Pepper, crush brands and Canada dry outside the North America, Australia and Europe. Development of Coca Colas is credited to adeptness in four areas- Infrastructure, consumer marketing, Customer or vendor marketing and product packaging. Coca Cola did not become suddenly successful. During the first year existence of product, it made only $50 in sales. By 1891, Asa G. Candler, a successful druggistowned the whole enterprise. Candlerinfused the enterprise with an excellent business sense. Under Candlers valuable leadership, which lasted 26 year period, the coca cola brought up quickly. By 1905, the syrup was totally free form cocaine(Brownsell, 2011). There was a deal to conquest the Quaker Oats company for $15.75 billion, in November 2000. The shareholders of the company elect the Board and this election aims at the overall success and strengthening the financial growth of the company. All the decision related to the company are taken by the board. The board of directors have framed the guideline to effective governance. The Coca Cola is having it board, where it is having seven committees; they are known as- Compensation, audit, corporate governance and directors, finance, executive, management development, diversity review and public issues. The board can establish committees in additional according to the necessity(Colley, 2003). The board of directors elects one of boards members annually to serve as t boards chairman. The chairman should supervise all the meetings of the share owners and of the board. Chairman will perform other duties do some exercise of his powers, as prescribed in laws prescribed by the board in timely manner. Its corporate governance includes objectives and plans through which the set goals are achieved. Governance includes policy making, taking actions and then evaluating the decisions and actions. Corporate governance practices are influenced when a need to align with the interest of the stakeholder arises (Collier, 2014). Corporate Governance at Coca Cola: The Coca Cola Company is perpetrated to very good corporate governance. It promotes long-term interests of its shareholders; it braces board and management accountability and constructs the trust of the public on the company. The shareholders of the company elect the Board and this election aims at the overall success and strengthening the financial growth of the company. Board takes all the decisions related to the company. The board of directors have framed the guideline to effective governance(Daver and Demirel, 2012). Guiding Principles for Corporate Governance at Coca Cola: The board of the Coca Cola Company have adopted many guiding principles to make successful corporate governance these are(Investors et al., 2015): Mission of the board and the responsibilities lie upon the Directors: The shareholders elect board of directors and this election aims at the overall success and encouraging the financial strength of the organization. The board is responsible for taking all the strategic decisions of the company. The board do the selection of members of the senior management team who are responsible for carrying out the business of the company. The interest of the shareholders lies in the active judgement of the business activities, which would best serve all the functions of the company. The board give advices and guides the senior management and Chief Executive Officer. It safeguards the company assets; the sustainability of the internal and financial controls of the company is the prime focus of the board. In this regard the compliance to rules and regulation is mandatory. The directors of the company may seek help from the senior managers, advisors and auditors from outside. The selection of auditors and advisors from outside requires integrity and skills. The boar d has the right to select financial and legal advisors from outside as per the need of the Coca Cola Company. The directors need to attend all the meetings held by committees. The directors are mandated to devote their time and efforts for the fulfilment of their duties. The board is directed to hold 5 meeting in a year without fail. The chairperson of the board sets the agenda. The directors can contribute the inclusion of topics to be discussed. Such meetings are deemed to take place every year. In executive sessions of the board, non-management directors need to meet (Fritz, Kaestner and Bergmann, 2010). Leadership of the board: The board may alter the position of the executives after every financial year as per the needs of the business. The board considers relevant factors before doing so. A description of the board`s view for choosing its leadership structure is shown in the annual meeting of its share holders. At least there will be one executive session in order include a review of the boards leadership structure among the non-management directors to determine the post of the chairman of the board. chief executive officer elects the chair man of the board. The board of directors elects one of its members annually to serve as the chairman of the board. The chairman of the board needs supervise all the meetings of the share owners and of the board. Chairman will perform other duties do some exercise of his powers, as prescribed in laws prescribed by the board in timely manner(Fritz, Kaestner and Bergmann, 2010). There comes a belief that an independent directors needs to elect a independent lead director for one year. Though the lead director is annually elected in order to serve for one year, it may be expected to serve more than one year(Kaen, 2003). Qualificationsof Director: Directors can be nominatedby the share owners or by the boardas per the agreement by laws. The committee of corporate government and directors will make review over all nominees for board. They also include proposed nominees of share owners, in agreement with its charter. Assessment includes review of nominees independence, experience and understanding about the other industries and company and other such factors which are concluded by the committee are applicable as per the current needs of the board. There is a belief raised within the board, which allows determining to nominees are given invitation to join the board. Boards chairman may expand boards invitation to join the board (Kim and Nofsinger, 2007). Director tenure and term: In agreement with the laws, directors are chosen for one year. The board never believes about any limits established on the number of terms served by the director. The terms may impose the limitation, which causes the loss of expertise and experience vital for the board operation. Directors, who served on board for an expanded period of time can provide valuable deep view into the future and the operations related to the company based on their understanding and experience of the companys objections and history. Determination of independence: The board should consist of independent directors. To make the independent determination, the board will observe all the requirements which are applicable, the requirements include standards for the corporate governance listening, which is recognized by the NYSE (New York Stock Exchange). The board will consider all the related circumstances and facts to determine the independence carefully. Having consideration of the independent is the purpose of imposing standards on the director qualification, 1) it is needed to meet the standards of the bright-line independence under NYSE listening standards. 2) The board should positively determine that the director does not have other kind of material relationship with anything related to company, directly or being an officer, partner or as a share owner of an organization that have close attachment with the company(Lyu and Pae, 2003). Board committees: The board is having seven committees; they are known as- Compensation, audit, corporate governance and directors, finance, executive, management development, diversity review and public issues. The board can establish committees in additional according to the necessity. The Committee of corporate governance and directors annually reviews the present recommendation and composition of each of the standing committee for committee membership to the board as per the need. There are no existence of strict changes and committee rotation policy in committee assignments. The committee assignments are made upon the basic needs of the committee, experience, availability, director interest and applicable legal consideration and regulatory. There are the independent directors, who are solely responsible to serve the audit committee o corporate governance and directors(Mallath, 2006). Each one of the standing committees has a its own charter, which sets forward the committee responsibilities, the procedures and qualification and every time committee will report to board. Each of the community will evaluate itself annually. The chairman of those committees will settle on the frequency of the committee meetings, maintenance of the consistency with the need of the company and with the committees charter. Director can have access to the information, Employees and officers: Directors have free and full right to use details about employees, officers and the related files, books and the all individual records related to company. Any contact or meetings that the director wants to initialize may get arrangement through the secretary, director or by the chief executive officer. The directors need to use their judgement to ensure that there may not have any such contact troublemaking for companys operations. The Board wants regular attendance of the non-board members at board meetings, who are there in companys most senior management position. The chairman of the board can make extension on such invitations(Monks and Minow, 2004). Counting Education and director orientation: All the new directors need to participate in companys orientation program, which must be accomplished as soon as possible after the meeting, where election to chose new director takes place. This orientation includes presentation by senior management, so that he can do familiarization of companys strategic and business plans to newly appointed directors. Chairman and chief executive officers annual performance evaluation: The board will evaluate annually to make sure about the chief executive officer and chairman of the board is able toprovide the a good leadership to the company . The board will evaluate performance of the chair man and chief executive officer of the board in an executive session among the non-management directors. The lead independent director led all program. The compensation committee will do the measurement of the performances of the chairman and the chief executive officer according to their determined objective and goals to be achieved and also considers the evaluation of the board as a whole(Roberts, 2008). Successful outcome within Management: The board will determine the principles and policies to perform the chief executive officer selection and the policies regarding progression in the result of a retirement of a chief executive officer or of an emergency. The board will oversee the development of the senior management and progression planning for the senior positions, using the given input from the management development committee(SRENSEN and PETERSEN, 2012). Director compensation: The committee determines director compensation amount on the director and then recommendation is donewith the committee charter to the board as a whole. Thecorporate governancecommittee and the fees and the responsibilities of the director should take into consideration compared to the other corporation or to the company. Stock of the company is an key portion of director compensation. Board relations and interactions with the outside interested parties: There is a belief in the board that the management act as a speaker for the company. with the request of the management, board members can come for a meeting individually or communicate with various constituencies, which have kept involvement with the company. Where boards comments are appropriate, are normally come from the chairman(Tollison et al., 1993). Recommendation for the improvement: In this section an identification of those future challenges faced by Coca-Cola are explored. These challenges may impose negative impression on the market share and Coca-Colas long term profitability. Hence recommendations are here to turn the challenges into opportunities. Declination of sales volume in the sector of soft drink: William Pecoriello, who is analyst of beverage industry from Morgan Stanley and co., predicted the category of CSD (carbonated soft drink). Due to the CSD category, the present amount of teens are tends become the lost generation. According to his latest survey of 1, 550 consumers, consumers index lie between the ages of 16-35. According to his view the US Carbonated Soft Drink segment is more likely to stay under pressure. He mentioned a forecast for a declination of 1.5 % volume for the Carbonated Soft Drink segmentannually. In theCoca-Colas major market of US, CSDs volume sale of (Carbonated Soft Drink) dropped more than 8 percent in 5 subsequent years, from 2005- 2009, with 0.2 percent in 2005, 0.6 percent in 2006, 2.3 percent in 2007 and 2008 with 3 percent and 2009 with 2.1 percent. It is more likely the decreasingscenario of volume (Why Coca Cola has lost its fizz, 2006). If Coca-Cola keeps focusing on CSD sector competitively, it will deteriorate or Coca-Cola will lose the leader in market of beverage industry. Coca-Cola can bring its focus more on the noncarbonated drinks, bottled water (which are coming as product under coca cola now a day) and more especially the energy drinks. In the year of 2006, energy drinks increased its sell at rate of 50%. In the year of 2010, there was a growth of 10 percent on energy drinks. Healthy drinks and energy drinks will be the most popular beverage for the new generation of health conscious customer and young consumers(Yuvaraju, Subramanyam and Rao, 2014). Conclusion: Coca Cola did not become suddenly successful. During the first year existence of product, it made only $50 in sales. By 1891, Asa G. Candler, a successful druggist owned the whole enterprise. Candler infused the enterprise with an excellent business sense. Under Candlers valuable leadership, which lasted 26 year period, the coca cola brought up quickly. By 1905, the syrup was totally free form cocaine (Brownsell, 2011). The shareholders of the company elect the Board and this election aims at the overall success and strengthening the financial growth of the company. All the decision related to the company are taken by the board. The board of directors have framed the guideline to effective governance. References: Baye, M. (2000).Managerial economics business strategy. Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill. Being delicious and being happy. (2006). Strategic Direction, 22(7), pp.27-29. Brownsell, A. (2011). Making Cokes brand fizz (Coca-Colas future marketing plans in the context of its 125th anniversary).Strategic Direction, 27(10). Colley, J. (2003). Corporate governance. New York: McGraw-Hill. Collier, K. (2014). A Case Study on Corporate Peace: The Coca-Cola Company: Coke Studio Pakistan. Business, Peace and Sustainable Development, 2014(2), pp.75-94. Collier, K. (2014). A Case Study on Corporate Peace: The Coca-Cola Company: Coke Studio Pakistan. Business, Peace and Sustainable Development, 2014(2), pp.75-94. Daver, F. and Demirel, B. (2012).An Energy Saving Approach in the Manufacture of Carbonated Soft Drink Bottles.Procedia Engineering, 49, pp.280-286. Fritz, K., Kaestner, M. and Bergmann, M. (2010). Coca-Cola Enterprises invests in on-boarding at the front lines to benefit the bottom line. Glob. Bus. Org. Exc., 29(4), pp.15-22. Ifc.org, (2015).About Corporate Governance. [online] Available at: https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/Topics_Ext_Content/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/Corporate+Governance [Accessed 8 Mar. 2015]. Investors, Company, Page, Brands, Videos, Sustainability, Innovation, History, Music, Unbottled, 100, EKOCENTER, Africa, #cokestyle, Connections, Recipes, PlantBottle, Company, Company, Mission, V., System, Workplace, Rights, Leadership, Rankings, History, Reports, Foundation, Report, Investors, Investors, Review, Information, Information, Events, Information, Governance, Filings, Center, Center, Releases, Statements, Articles, Library, Library, Contacts, Careers, Careers, Are, Here, Opportunities, Areas, People, Us, Us, FAQs, Australia, Deutschland, Espaa, Italia, (Japan), and Franais, (2015). Corporate Governance - The Coca-Cola Company. [online] The Coca-Cola Company. Available at: https://www.coca-colacompany.com/investors/corporate-governance [Accessed 8 Mar. 2015]. Kaen, F. (2003).A blueprint for corporate governance. New York: AMACOM. Kim, K. and Nofsinger, J. (2007).Corporate governance. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Lyu, M. and Pae, Y. (2003). Bottom design of carbonated soft drink poly(ethylene terephthalate) bottle to prevent solvent cracking. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 88(5), pp.1145-1152. Mallath, M. (2006). Re: Carbonated Soft Drink Consumption and Risk of Esophageal Adenocarcinoma. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 98(9), pp.644-645. Monks, R. and Minow, N. (2004).Corporate governance. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Pub. Roberts, I. (2008). Corporate capture and Coca-Cola.The Lancet, 372(9654), pp.1934-1935. SRENSEN, N. and PETERSEN, K. (2012).Corporate Capitalism or Coca-Colonisation?Economic Interests, Cultural Concerns, Tax Policies and Coca-Cola in Denmark from 1945 to the Early 1960s.Contemporary European History, 21(04), pp.597-617. Tollison, R., Muris, T., Scheffman, D. and Spiller, P. (1993).Strategy, Structure, and Antitrust in the Carbonated Soft-Drink Industry.The Business History Review, 67(4), p.668. Veale, D. (1996). Mentoring and coaching as part of a human resource development strategy: an example at Coca Cola Foods. Leadership Org Development J, 17(3), pp.16-20. Why Coca Cola has lost its fizz. (2006). Strategic Direction, 22(1), pp.19-21. Yuvaraju, D., Subramanyam, D. and Rao, P. (2014). Advertising Strategy of Coca-Cola at Coca-Cola Beverages Pvt.Ltd. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 16(6), pp.122-131.

Witches and Witchcraft in Elizabethan England Myth or Reality Essay Example

Witches and Witchcraft in Elizabethan England: Myth or Reality? Paper Witchcrafts and witches’ powers written in literatures and accounts of Elizabethan era have always been the subject of debate among historian. According to them, witches’ â€Å"powers† are synonymous to knowledge and that witchcraft did not exist during the Elizabethan era. However, some historical accounts have opposed these propositions and claimed that these beings really existed during the Elizabethan era. Elizabethan England is known as the reigning era of Queen Elizabeth from 1558 to 1603, which has always been regarded as the golden age of England’s history[1]. However, historians have also regarded this era as the start of the wide witchcraft menace in the societies of England. Elizabethan writers, such as W. Shakespeare’s Macbeth (1603-1606), Dekker, Ford and Rowley’s The Witch of Edmonton (1621), and Heywood and Brome’s The Late Lancashire Witches (1634), had written actual stories revealing witch trials during this era[2]. However, historians had attributed these tales to myths, while some oppose these claims stating that these really occurred. We will write a custom essay sample on Witches and Witchcraft in Elizabethan England: Myth or Reality? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Witches and Witchcraft in Elizabethan England: Myth or Reality? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Witches and Witchcraft in Elizabethan England: Myth or Reality? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Discussion English renaissance blossomed during this era enriching fields of English poetry and literature, while English reformation between Protestants and Catholics began to subside in the efforts of internal peace in religion. With Christianity’s state of peace, words of witchcraft had spread from Scotland towards London, and eventually, the religious society became alarmed. The idea of witchcraft and witch existence during the Elizabethan era was first told in the published treatise of Scotland’s King James VI – Daemonologie – in Ediburgh in 1957 after being convinced of the existence of witches. King James VI himself had encountered a witch who predicted his exact statements towards his bride during their wedding night[3]. Witchcraft became an issue all throughout England, and upper class society regarded the poor as the women behind the paranormal event. However, according to the historian, James Sharpe, Elizabethan witches did not exist as evidenced by their lack of witches’ collective organization ever noted in England’s historical accounts (cited in Pool 127). Furthermore, the tale of witchcraft during this era was suspiciously inclined on feminine persecution. McFalane and Sharpe (1999) argued that the witchcraft tales did not entirely exist since these were all mere accusations brought by society’s low regards against feminine significance in society (76). Meanwhile, some historians assert that accusations of witchcraft were only done for the purpose of social control among women of Elizabethan era, such as the story of Anne Boleyn and Perotine Massey[4]. Female society was possibly feared due to their sexual control over men, especially during cases of conception were involved. Witch accusations were also directed among women who bypassed patriarchal powers and those with strong personality. According to Travitsky and Seeff (1994), women accused with witchcraft were burned at stake to prevent them from returnin g to their society; thus, preventing as well their potential influence. On the other hand, women accused with witchcraft during Elizabethan era were around 314 listed in Assize court prosecution, while majority were burned or acquitted without proper trials. Disturbingly, the fear of the public towards witches was so intense that simple petting of animals was already considered witchcraft. Women accused as witches had their familiars (normatively a black cat), and together, were burned at stake, such as the Witch trials at Chelmsford in 1566[5].   In fact, the trends of witch-hunting during this era became so intense that the higher court passed two acts (i.e. Witchcraft Act of 1542 and 1563) imposing a punishment of death against those proven practicing witchcraft[6]. Two of the most commendable records of witch trials occurred in 1566 and 1567, which evidently included paranormal manifestations.   The account of the witchcraft trial in 1566 involved a widow referred as the Mother Agnes Waterhouse, who had her spotted familiar (cat) named as â€Å" Sathan†. The cat was given by the grandmother of Elizabeth Francis who, at the time of owning the cat, received various provisions of sexual requests from the cat. After owning the cat, Mother Waterhouse turned the creature to a toad to poison the poultries and geese of her neighbors. Unfortunately, Mother Waterhouse killed one of his neighbors in the process, which led her to the witches’ secular trial. Eventually, Mother Agnes’s 18-year-old daughter – Jone (or Joan) – testified against her witchcraft practices, which led her to death by the rope[7]. On the other hand, another case was filed by the young son of Elleine Smith declaring that his mother owned three spirits that she used on her witchcraft ceremonies. The trials commenced without providing the statements of the child; although, four witnesses testified on the accounts of the child, which satisfied the court judgment. Despite these events, historians defended the issue by claiming that t he trends of accusations were not at all supported by the physical forms of the accused paranormal events. However, approaches of the higher authorities (e.g. King James VI, papacy, etc.) and the common members of Elizabethan society were entirely unusual to consider these accusations as products of social control towards the feminine community. Conclusion In conclusion, the events of witchcraft during the Elizabethan society can be considered as another form of myth due to the lack of evidences to support the claims of the actual paranormal activity. Based from the historians’ accounts, accusations of witchcraft are only parts of the social control implemented by the society to prevent bypass of patriarchal authority and to maintain the order of gender in Elizabethan society. However, unrest and skepticisms on these events may still continue until proofs of witchcraft’s existence during Elizabethan era are discovered.

How To Write Blog Post Introductions That Hook Readers

How To Write Blog Post Introductions That Hook Readers There are eight  other people reading this post along with us. In just a few minutes, there will only be the two of us. Dont believe it? The challenge was already insurmountable.  People read about 18% of your blog post. Readers are overwhelmed with information and are  purposefully not reading  for their own sanity.  Heck, weve been bemoaning the death of reading since 1991, and even again in 2007. So what to do about getting readers to read? How do you keep people reading to the end? Master The Art Of Blog Post Introductions And Keep Your Readers Reading via @JulieNeidlinger A  Blog Post  Introduction Must Have A Hook Let me introduce you to introductions.  Introductions are first impressions.  You get to make them once. Your blog post introduction must have a hook. Here are six good hooks to use in your blog post introductions. 1. Start with an interesting fact. "Niagara Falls has traveled  7 miles upstream in the past 12,000 years. Let's hope you're growing your web traffic at a faster rate." Start with a fact that is interesting, because not all facts are. Facts that are uninteresting are facts that: Are overused and often repeated. Too common in your niche. Related perfectly to your topic in an unsurprising way. Pick facts that have nothing obviously to do with your topic (Niagara Falls and website traffic?), or are perfectly in line with your topic and thesis, but are so shocking as to be gasp-worthy.  Unrelated facts make the reader think "how is this bozo going to tie that into the topic at hand?" while shocking facts make the reader think "that CANNOT be true, can it?!" Either way, it's a hook. 2. The end of the story first. There are two ways to tell the end of the story first and have a successful hook. Find a way to tell the end of the story without giving away the surprise. "The 20,000 customer registered in our system, and the team let out a victorious yell. We'd hit our goal, thanks to the red button." How does the story end? Because that's a perfect place to start. In this example, the introduction tells the reader what happened, but it doesn't do so in a way that ruins the surprise. There's a lot of action, both by the final customer and the team. There's the suggestion of a competition and success (a goal was met). And there's a cryptic suggestion that a red button did something amazing. Plus, 20,000. That's impressive for anyone wanting lots of customers. This would be a less effective version of the introduction for that post: "After five months of intense A/B testing in which we tested different CTA button colors, we finally hit 20,000 customers. Red was the winning color." Yawn. There is jargon. There are unexplained acronyms. An inanimate button has become the winner instead of the people (customers and the team). What little action there is, is passive.  And you spilled the beans on what the post was about: A/B testing colors. Give a heads-up summation without giving away the surprise. This method gives your reader some respect by saying "hey, this is what I'm going to talk about with you today. If this is interesting, stick around."  Derek Halpern tends to get right to the point with his blog posts, and often introduces them by telling readers what they can expect if they keep reading. Adding "a quick request" is a fine bit of intrigue for the reader. "What in the world could Halpern want from me?" the reader thinks, and keeps on reading. Knowing what's coming and how things will end is helpful for readers. It gives them an idea of whether or not they should take the time and what expectations to have. The danger for you, the writer, is if you have an unexciting topic and give your readers a heads-up  to that. "Today I am going to talk about the value proposition of going paperless at your office, and ultimately prove that you will want to buy a small scanner and ban the paper." Meh. That's not an introduction to remember for all eternity. Halpern's version has a bit more intrigue and zip, though, admittedly, some readers will appreciate the above example. It has its place, but isn't the greatest hook. 3. Use an anecdote. "I once wrote a newspaper story that killed a man." That's the actual blog post introduction I wrote on a post for this blog. It's a one-sentence anecdote. That's an extremely short anecdote; most anecdotes are longer, like those you find in this post about social proof in which several anecdotes are used. Anecdotes are wee bitty stories that put a larger idea or thesis in a different context. Speakers know that starting with a story instead of a philosophical or fact-filled lecture is a sure-fire way to get people's attention. It's the same for your readers. What makes a good anecdote? Something that happened to you, in your life. This makes you the expert on how to apply the story and what it means. I would rather hear an anecdote about your trials and failures rather than the tired anecdote of how many times Edison tried to invent the lightbulb. Something either funny or poignant. Make 'em laugh or make 'em cry (or somewhere close). At the very least, end at a different level than where you started. You start at ground zero with your reader. Your anecdote can't end there. It's no hook if it does. Something related to your thesis. Don't be that speaker that tells a random joke or story and then segues with an "but I digress" and launches into Yawnville. Your anecdote should illustrate your thesis in a new way, or start leading the reader's thought patterns towards where you want to take them with your thesis. A quote can work. Quotations can work, and sometimes make a fine opening. But people quickly get in the habit of using the words of others to boost their own, so watch out for overuse of this technique. And avoid quotations that are overused for your niche. Steve Jobs had some good things to say,  but after a while, those excellent words lose their power because they are overused. Find new quotations from surprising sources. And avoid quotations that are overused for your niche. Steve Jobs had some good things to say, but after a while, those excellent words lose their power because they are overused. – @JulieNeidlinger 4. Ask a (worthwhile) question. Yes, there are stupid questions, and a good share  of them are rhetorical. In their best use, asking a question is a fine way to force the reader to identify with the problem you are about to solve. Questions can be powerful. But some questions are a waste of time. Go easy with  rhetorical questions.   "What are we going to do about your low-performing blog?" Rhetorical questions cannot be answered by the reader. They are asked not to prompt thinking or discover knowledge, but to make a point. They are often dramatic. They can be insulting. "Have you stopped beating your dog yet?" is a classic example. The question assumes someone is being cruel to an animal. It can't really be answered. Or "How do you solve a problem like Maria?", which assumes first that Maria is a problem. It's similar to what I see  being used a lot in lead generation and calls-to-action where one button says "Yes, I want more traffic. Take my email!" while the other button says "No, I want to see my website die a painful slow death." Rhetorical questions set up the reader in a similar, psychological way. The reader has to accept the underlying assumption in order to answer. It can work, but if you make an offensive or insulting assumption, your reader leaves. Use rhetorical questions carefully. Don't ask questions intended to limit the answer. Pet peeve alert: I despise  when people speak in questions so they can pre-empt any difficult or real questions and give softball answers. Here's how it works (and I'm sure you'll recognize the technique): "Do I love web traffic? Yes. Did I mean to send my disgruntled blog readers a skunk in the mail? Of course not." By asking the questions you, the writer, want to answer instead of providing the answers the reader wants, you can create the appearance of forthright and complete discussion without actually doing so. Plus, you slip into passive voice of sorts, where you don't own the action and behavior. How does that work in an introduction? "Do I love web traffic? Yes. Do I know the secret to building it? You bet." Ok, we get it. But what a waste of your reader's time. "My love of web traffic is bested only by my ability to build it." Kind of a silly  example, but you get the idea: be direct, not passive. Do you want more traffic on your blog? Write better blog post introductions with these tips.Don't ask obvious questions. Every time I find myself tapping out an introduction that starts with "do you want more traffic on your blog?" I'm sure somewhere a philosopher dies. What I'm trying to do is tell the reader "yes, this is the post you were looking for" but what I'm really telling the reader is "I don't know how to write." "Do you want more traffic on your blog?" Really? That's your Bob Woodward? "98 percent of blog owners want more traffic. Yeah, we don't understand that remaining two percent, either." You can identify with your reader without asking them obvious questions that they skim over. 5.  Go for the  cliffhangers. Robert Bruce  (who is someone else entirely than Robert the Bruce)  is a writer and a tease. Once in a while but not too often, mind you he sends out an email of Unusually Short Stories. He also posts them on his web site. He is all sparseness and tortuous brevity, his unusually short stories impeccable. They hook, and leave you hanging off the cliff. One of Robert Bruce's unusually short stories. Take a page from Bruce's book: these are the introductory paragraphs that get readers hooked. I know, because I've sat and stared at them willing the next sentence to appear (which  will not happen). I'm a firm believer mimicking and dissecting the successful work of others as a form of practice. Artists often paint from the masters to learn about color, light, and technique (I've done it). While at a writers' conference a few months ago, best-selling author James Hall told of a class he taught his graduate students (which included Dennis Lehane) where they were instructed to find a novel they loved and write their own novel based on the structure of it. He later turned this class into a book called Hit Lit: Cracking The Code Of The 20th Century's Biggest Best Sellers. So let's look at Bruce's example. What makes it work? It's only two sentences, and I'm dying to read the next paragraph. The setup tells us there is a competition known only to us (we have exclusive knowledge). There is a setting, both in place and time. And we know the startling end result. The cliffhanger isn't what happened next, but what happened in between. How do you get from intriguing point A to hilarious and startling point Z? So. A cliffhanger can be either "what happens next" or "what happened in between." Let's say your headline was: How We Went From Zero To 10,000 Customers In Just One Year.   Here's an example of a "what happened in between" cliffhanger: "We started with  three team members  and a plant in the window. One year later, we were taking sledgehammers to the office walls." The rest of the post talks about how you grew your customer base, and how it meant your team grew, too, and you had to expand your office space. (Or how things went poorly and you demolished the office in a fit of rage, but let's hope not.) 6. Gentle confrontation can be a friend. "You were getting 100 new sign-ups a week, and thought your email conversion rate was as good as it could get. But you were wrong, and I'll tell you why." Confrontation is sure to get a reader's attention. Of course, not all confrontation is created equal.  There is insulting and trollish confrontation (always wrong), and there is gentle confrontation. A gentle confrontation takes a soft  swipe at a controversy, or pokes a long-held belief of the reader in a way that encourages them to read on and reconsider. What happens when you do that? The reader feels indignant and keeps reading if only to prepare to prove you wrong. Or the reader is intrigued and keeps reading to see if it's true. The reader skips to the end and leaves a ranting comment never having read your post, meaning you have to gently say "but I said that later in my post." So in the case of the first reaction, gentle confrontation can be a friend. In the case of the second reaction...less so. Either way, introductions that are confrontational can often lead to active comment sections.

Quads and Squads

Quads and Squads Quads and Squads Quads and Squads By Mark Nichol A family of words ultimately derived from the Latin noun quadrus, meaning â€Å"a square,† pertain one way or the other to the number four. Here are those words, more or less common in English usage, and their definitions. The most versatile, and most ubiquitous, of these terms is square, which refers to a shape with four equal sides and right angles; an area, structure, or formation in the shape of a square; a tool used to lay out or test right angles; the product of a number multiplied by itself; a conventional person; a meal as one of three traditional full meals served or eaten in the course of a day; an adjective meaning â€Å"fair† or â€Å"honest,† or â€Å"old-fashioned†; an adverb pertaining to those senses; and a verb meaning â€Å"cut square,† â€Å"regulate,† or â€Å"accord.† The other words, and their definitions, follow: escadrille: a unit of French aircraft equivalent to a squadron quadrangle: an enclosure surrounded by buildings, or the building itself, or an area represented by one of a set of maps (abbreviated quad); also, synonymous with quadrilateral quadrant: one quarter of a circle or other regular or nearly regular shape; also, a device for measuring altitude quadraphonic: pertaining to four channels of sound quadrat: a rectangular plot of land specified for study quadrate: square or almost square; a specific type of cross in heraldry; a bone in the skull of birds and lizards; an adjective meaning â€Å"square† or â€Å"nearly square†; also, another word for quadratus (see below) quadratic: referring to the use of squaring, or raising to the second power, in mathematics quadratus: any of various roughly quadrilateral muscles quadrennial: lasting four years or occurring every four years quadricentennial: a four-hundred-year anniversary quadriceps: a set of four leg muscles quadrifid: divided into four parts (said of leaves, for example) quadrilateral: a four-sided figure, including but not limited to squares and rectangles quadrille: a square dance or a music for the dance; also, an equestrian exhibition involving four riders or groups of riders quadrillion: the number represented with the numeral 1,000,000,000,000 quadripartite: consisting of four parts or shared by four parties quadriplegic: a person paralyzed in all four limbs quadrivium: the educational disciplines of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music, which were taught after the trivium of grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the two groups constitute the classical seven liberal arts quadroon: a person who is one-fourth black quadruped: a four-legged animal quadruple: increased fourfold, or consisting of four components, or, as a noun, something that is quadruple quadruplet: one of four offspring born as a result of one pregnancy, or a combination of four of a kind quadruplex: consisting of four parts, such as a four-unit apartment building; also, a telegraphic system allowing two messages to be sent simultaneously in each direction quadruplicate: multiply by four, or consisting of four parts quod: British English slang for prison, perhaps from quadrangle, derived from the shape of a typical prison squad: a unit of military personnel or athletes, or a group of people with a specific task squadron: a unit of aircraft, of cavalry, or of navy vessels Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Redundant Phrases to Avoid45 Synonyms for â€Å"Old† and â€Å"Old-Fashioned†How to Address Your Elders, Your Doctor, Young Children... and Your CEO

Issues in Child Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Issues in Child Development - Essay Example I would also discuss how this policy would support the current policies already in place. Body Children have basic rights as human beings and these rights mostly refer to the special protection afforded them as young individuals (Amnesty International, 2011). These rights include the right to human identity, basic needs for food, education, health care, and criminal laws appropriate to their age and development. Their rights also include freedom from physical, mental, and emotional abuse (Amnesty International, 2011). The politics of childhood is often based on the appropriate learning which can be applied to the different students from different races, cultures, and religions, in one school system or even in one classroom (Morris, 2011). It is also sometimes based on how children are perceived by other members of society, and with children not being afforded the same entitlements in rights as their adult counterparts. Furthermore, these children are also perceived as similar to each other in terms of learning ability and capacity. However, not all students have the same capacity or pace in learning (Haskvitz, 2011). Some children may indeed be smart and be fast learners; however, others may be slow learners and may take a while to learn concepts. Other children rest may be adept in other areas of learning. For example, some may be math whizzes, but be terrible in English or science, or be excellent in English, but be terrible at Math. The important point to consider is that there are different elements which have to be considered in teaching children (Haskvitz, 2011). And by managing these considerations and integrating the necessary changes into the learning process, it is possible to achieve the best learning conditions for children. Educational Policy based on the immediate rewards system Rationale: This policy was chosen because it seeks to provide immediate rewards and reinforcement for learning and growing children. I chose this as an applicable policy f or children because children have short attention spans and short-term memories. The best way to reinforce a positive behaviour is to immediately reward or praise it (Domjan, 2003, p. 45). A policy which is therefore based on immediate rewards or reinforcement is the easiest way of ensuring an effective learning process. Goal: To provide an effective and appropriate educational curriculum and policy for children based on a strong and immediate rewards and reinforcement system. Implementation 1. This policy would first require teachers to undergo training in the proper and effective rewards, reinforcement, and punishment system in their teaching styles. This training shall be undertaken with the assistance of educational and psychological experts who shall guide the teachers in the proper and effective ways of rewarding, reinforcing, and punishing their students. If possible, this training should also be integrated in the educational systems of colleges and universities offering teac hing courses. The sooner that this rewards system can be integrated into the education of teachers, the better for the students and the children. 2. This policy then needs to be gradually integrated into the curriculum of students. It is a policy which would not require a complete or significant overhaul of the UK educational system. Changes needed would be on the rewards and reinforcement given to students. This rewards system

China's Environmental issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

China's Environmental issue - Essay Example Rapid economic development has led to reduction in land that can be cultivated. According to current studies China has lost more than 44.1 million hectares of land since the 1980s. Many jungles, fisheries and ponds have been destroyed. The majority of China’s forests and jungles are suffering from deforestation and destruction. Desertification and salinization are other major problems affecting arable land. Large areas of the Yangtze River have lost its volume. Environmental problems which have affected China’s arable land have led to scarcity of water and diminished agricultural production capacity. Serious concerns have been raised about China’s ability to feed its rising population. Soil erosion, desertification, water scarcity, deforestation are some of the major environmental problems faced by China (Edmonds, 53). China’s rising industrial capacity has led to pollution which threatens the environment. Industrial waste products make up a large portion of pollution in China. Waste products have been released into the environment without proper processing methods. Textile, mining, food, paper, oil industries are the leading producers of waste products which have been dumped into the Huang River. The lack of enforcement of environmental regulation laws had led to the spread of pollution by the industrial sector. China’s industries also lack the modern technology to process industrial waste products. China has ample resources of oil and coal. However it consumes more energy than it produces. A thriving economy has also fed the need for energy resources. This has led to the degradation of the environment. Coal is the main source of energy for China. The demand for crude oil and electricity has increased with the rise in industries. China consumes about 9 percent of the world’s oil supply. It is increasingly dependant upon foreign producers for oil and energy

Science Direct Essay Example for Free

Science Direct Essay In the Science Direct (2006) article â€Å"The Last King: A royal maternity case solved by ancient DNA analysis† the author’s Jorgan Dissing, Jonas Binladen, Anders Hansen, Birgitte Sejrsen, Eske Willerslev and Niels Lynnerup informs the reader about the last Danish Viking Kings, Sven Estriden who died in A.D. 1074 and was entombed in the Roskilde Cathedral. The problem on hand and what the author’s make an attempt to reveal is whether or not Sven Estriden’s mother, Estrid was entombed in the pillar across the chancel, as there have been many doubts among historians whether the woman was indeed Estrid or someone else. To find whether Estrin was the actual mother, the author’s used variety of different tests and methods. The analysis done by these proficient authors included, DNA extraction methods and examination of skeletons while taking the most special care to ensure nothing got damaged proving that the woman buried was not Sven’s mother. The ‘Last Viking King’ is written by a number of authors who have very prestigious academic backgrounds. There is in fact, no doubt that there is no shortage of professionals represented in regard to this scientific endeavor. Within this article the reader is given the academic departments that the authors are associated with; Jorgen Dissing is associated with the Research Laboratory, Jonas Binladen in the Department of Evolutionary Biology, Anders Hansen is associated with the Department of Evolutionary Biology and Department of Forensic Pathology, Birgitte Sejrsen is associated with the Department of Forensic Pathology, Eske Willersley the Center for Evolutionary Genetics and last but not least Niels Lynnerup who is affiliated with the Antrophological Laboratory. Between these authors, four are from the Institute of Forensic Medicine, one author is from the Biological Institute and the last author is from the Niels Bohr Institute. All six author’s are from the University of Copenhagen located in Denmark, which has produced 8 Noble Prize winners and the university itself has been ranked 44th in the world. (University of Copenhagen, 2012) With such variation of researchers in different fields the author’s worked in, it may have been reasonable to find some researcher’s from another university to contribute and also have actual author’s who had worked in the area of writing to help out. By no means do these authors fall short in terms of their qualifications and areas of expertise and one can only be reassured these author’s were more than certified in doing this study, but in terms of writing the article may have been more appealing if one of the author’s had a background history in writing. In order to answer the question â€Å"Was the individual in the tomb indeed Sven’s mother Estrid?† the author’s used different methods that included extracting DNA, and examining skeletons to help them on their quest to find the answer. The first method consisted of extracting DNA from tooth samples. In order to do extraction of DNA, most methods are designed to deal with fresh tissues containing high molecular weight DNA and intact cells. (Nature Publishing Group, 2007) In ancient specimens there is usually no cell structure that are preserved due to extraordinary time periods the specimen has gone through. (Nature Publishing Group, 2007) So incases of ancient DNA extraction bone and teeth samples may be used to help extract potential DNA. In the case of this article, two teeth, the cannies and premolars, were extracted from both King Sven’s skull, and two from the skull perceived to be Sven’s mother Estrid. The researchers methods of extracted DNA came from their tooth samples, by using one tooth at a time. Some of the main stages the tooth went through included; being cleaned with a paper clutch soaked in 10% commercial bleach and UV-irradiated for 20 minutes on each side. Then the surface of the tooth was sealed by the application of two layers of cellulose lacquer. From there the root was cut horizontally around 5 millimeter from the root/crown, junction where then the surface area that was exposed by UV irradiated for 20 min. Next a dental drill was used to remove the pulp. The DNA was extracted using the dialysis approach of Kolman and Tuross. (Binladen, Dissing, Hansen, Lynnerup, Sejrsen Willersley, 2006, p.23) A second tooth was used for replication of key D-loop but the study was done in a separate laboratory and by only three of the authors; Anders Hansen, Eske Willersley and Jonas Binlanden. (Binladen, Hansen, Willersley, 2006, p.23) The author’s logical approach of Extracting DNA included using the samples of teeth from both specimens as the evidence is shown in the article. The author’s do a good job leading you on a path that depicts step-by-step process of how the authors extracted the DNA from the tooth samples. This second method used to find out whether if Estred was the mother buried in the tomb the author’s conducted an examination of Estrid’s skeleton to attempt an mtDNA analysis of the remains. MtDNA other wise known as mitochondria DNA is passed down from their mothers to their sons and daughters. MtDNA tests are a good way to test your direct maternal lineage. (Genetic Home Reference, 2012) In this research If the women in the tomb was in fact Estred’s mother, the mtDNA sequence should have been exactly the same, as mothers pass it down to their children, which would mean it would have been inherited by the son Sven. In the research the author’s found â€Å" that mtDNA from Sven and Estrid differs at two nucleotide positions makes maternal kinship between the two highly unlikely.† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.26) On top of doing mtDNA test’s the authors also did physical anthropological examination of the skeletal remain of the women, they came to realize the individual was no more than 30 – 40 years old at the time of their death. This makes it impossible for the individual in the tomb to be Sven’s mother, considering historic facts state the mother passed away during the age of 70. The second thing the author’s realized was when they did the same process mentioned above with Svens remains there results showed the age of death for sven was 40 – 60 years old which fall according to historic records that state Sven was around 55 years of age at the time of his passing. These tests do a good job of showing you evidence of the fact that the individual in the tomb couldn’t have been Sven’s mother due to the age restrictions. The researchers did the test in the correct way taking mtDNA of both the mother and the son remains examining both to find compelling evidence if there was a match between the two. All though these tests show you with the most accurate depictions of whether the individual in the tomb was indeed the mother. When dealing with work that involves the analysis of DNA, a number of precautions have to be taken into account during your research. First of you have to provide safety for your researchers, often times when your dealing with ancient DNA it is almost guaranteed you will be working with some type of chemicals that can cause skin irritation if you don’t use gloves, more specific chemicals that you work with, can do a lot more significant damage, like severely burn your skin. Another precaution to take is to be careful of the tool’s you’ll be working with, this may include sharp cutting tools and drills, which can also cause severe body injury if not used with the proper safety equipment, like gloves and protective eyewear. Aside from the safety of the workers, a number of precautions have to be taken also to ensure the ancient specimens your associating yourselves with don’t get damaged. Everything from what type of equipment you handle your specimens with, to the room temperature you leave your specimens in play a vital role in making sure nothing gets damaged or wrecked. The researchers from the very start did a good job of respecting their ancient specimens by taking every essential step necessary to protect the specimens. In the beginning when authors Jonas Binladen And Niels Lynnerup retrieved the skeletons from the pillars â€Å"full body suits, facemasks and sterile gloves were worn throughout.† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.22) Another example can of taking extensive measures to care for the specimen can be seen by the laboratory’s being altered to suite the specimens needs â€Å"The laboratory is fitted out with positive, filtered airflow, hanging UV – lights for sterilization of surfaces.† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.23) Another example of making sure the specimen was damaged by equipment or by the lab it was in â€Å"all equipment to be used in the lab was sterilized, metal tools and glassware by baking at 250 degree Celsius for 24 hr, other equipment by wiping the surfaces with a cloth soaked with 10% bleach.† (Binl aden Et al, 2006 p.23) In addition to sterilizing the labs and equipment the best chemicals were used for this study â€Å"All chemicals and reagents were of analytical grade or the highest purity available† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.22) To ensure their perseverance of the specimens the authors even at the end restored the teeth back into the skull â€Å"Subsequently, the teeth were restored by removing the lacquer with acetone, the tip of the root was glued into place, and the teeth were replaced in the skulls.† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.23) Based on the measurements done by the researchers to ensure the specimens wouldn’t get damaged they did a absolute amazing job. From cleaning out the labs and equipment they used to choosing the best chemicals needed you could tell in a instant that the number one objective besides finding the answer’s, was to not damage any of the actual ancient specimens. Staff workers even made the commitment of coming directly to the laboratory from home. â€Å"staff workers that worked in the laboratory came directly from home and were equipped with full body suits, hairnets, filtered – containing facemasks, and gloves.† (Binladen Et al, 2006 p.23) In conclusion, there was a sense of legitimacy to the methods the authors used in finding out their answers, from DNA extraction’s and skeleton examinations. The authors did a successful job in convincing the reader with clear evidence from their results that concluded the individual in the tomb was too young to be Sven’s mother according to historic records. Overall this article doesn’t inform you whom the real individual found buried next to Sven is, but it does leave you with some opinions that the women may have been one of Sven’s daughters in law. To further reinstate this fact, the reader is told both daughters in laws were queens and had the same name of, Estrid. Ultimately, the full identity of the individual in the tomb is still not evident, the only thing that is supported is the fact it was highly unlikely that Sven’s mother Estrid was the individual entombed. References Dissing, Jorgen, Jonas Binladen, Anders Hansen, Birgitte Sejrsen, Eske Willersley, and Niels Lynnerup. The Last Viking King: A Royal Maternity Case Solved by Ancient DNA Analysis. (2006): 21-27. Print. Jones, Cheryl. Researchers to Drill for Ancient DNA in hobbit Tooth: Scientific American. Researchers to Drill for Ancient DNA in hobbit Tooth: Scientific American. N.p., 5 Jan. 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. Mitochondrial DNA. Genetics Home Reference. N.p., Oct. 2012. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 12 July 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. Powell, Kimberly. MtDNA Testing for Genealogy. About.com Genealogy. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012. University of Copenhagen. Topuniversities. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012.

Human Resource Management Essay -- Business, International Human Resou

Human resources are considered to be a potential source for competitive advantage. It is seen as the accumulation stock of knowledge; skills and abilities that individual possess which the firm has built over years through identifiable expertise (Cappelli and Singh, 1992). The success of firms can be measured from the ability to synthesise the firm’s HR with strategic objectives of the organisation. According to Klein et al. (1991:11), ‘If expertise manifestation behaviour is consistent on the formation of skills, it becomes a basis for competitive advantage’. The scholar further argues that a dedicated skill comes from employees’ continuous application of skills to a particular tasks, product and project. Through learning and strategic combinations of dedicated skills, skills are then transforms to core skills which then can promote new product and new market (). These resource capabilities are indeed helpful for MNC exploiting developing market to gain co mpetitive advantage and hereby increasing market share. However, there have been various strategic plans by MNC to successfully gain competitive advantage in developing market taking into account theoretical frameworks and issues emanating from parent company and host county-specific. The field of international human resources management has been characterised by three broad approaches which gives an insight on cross-cultural management issues (Laurent, 1986), comparative HRM research (Brewster, 1998; Hendry, 2003), and international HRM in multinational corporations. The latter is commonly recognised as international HRM which involves diverse complexities due to diversity of national contexts and different national categories of employees (Dowling and Welch, 2004). An impor... ...n et at. (1991), specifically and critically view IHR strategic relationship between the parent company and its subsidiaries. This relationship can be viewed in two ‘fits’. The first fit is the external-outside organisational fit which encompasses the level of fit between the subsidiaries IHR undertakings and the cross-national and cross-cultural environment that is operating in which includes across it boundaries. On the other hand, internal-outside fit is viewed as IHR activities of the subsidiary and the IHR activities across other MNC within its boundaries. In summary, this business strategy possess that a subsidiary needs to put into consideration its roles and standing within the MNC and well as its place amongst the local, national and global environment when developing IHR strategies. This business strategy consideration is illustrated on Figure 2.

Public Health Care Service In Cameroon Essay

Social services consist of goods that are part of major resource bases that must be managed effectively in order to fulfill the ongoing development need of the country. The public health care system (PHCS) is one of the resource bases that directly benefits from government budget allocation. Throughout Cameroon, researchers observe major differences and unequal share distribution in the access and utilization of the public health services. These incongruities become obvious when examining the distribution of health infrastructures and health workers throughout Cameroon. A closer analysis shows that the organizational imbalance of public health establishments, along with inappropriate internal and external administrative politics (financial weaknesses and inadequate governance) in the management of PHCS are the most significant obstacles affecting the effectiveness of the health staff, the efficiency of the PHCS and the equity of public health services delivery in Cameroon. Human Resource Distribution First, the number of health care workers across the country is significantly inadequate with approximately 1 physician made available for about 10,000 inhabitants, compared to 1 for every 3,000 as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Furthermore, it has been reported that there is about 1 nurse for every 2,250 individuals, compared to 1 for every 1,000 as recommended by the WHO. Table 2-1 shows the statistical trend in the number of physicians, nurses, midwives, dentists and other health care providers from 1980 to 2005, as well as the increase in the number of pharmacies. Even though the numbers that are displayed in this table seem large, and bearing in mind that the population has been steadily increasing since 1980, there is a discrepancy between the number of providers working in the health care industry and the number of people living in Cameroon. Indeed, in 2001 the human resource deficit in the PHCS has been estimated to total approximately 9,000 persons. In addition to the deficient number of health care workers, there is unequal distribution of health staffs throughout the country with wide distribution disparities between urban and rural areas, which point to obvious disparities in access to care between poor and non-poor. Studies show that while the ratio of health personnel stands at 1 for 400 people in urban areas, their ratio of health personnel decreases tenfold, and is pegged at 1 for 4000 people in rural areas, requiring rural residents to travel long distances to receive the necessary medical care. Such imbalance between health workers and the population requiring the health services raises concerns about the effectiveness of the health providers, since it is likely that their competence would be diminished due to the heavy load of patients they must care for. Because PHCS facilities are selectively located, there arise problems of equity in access. Equipment and Facilities Distribution The distribution of equipment and facilities resources also indicates that the PHCS is poorly equipped to provide adequate health services to meet the needs of the population. The physical resources– buildings, equipment, and supplies– have been woefully deteriorating for some time. Most of the infrastructure and the equipment of the PHCS are outdated. Facilities are unevenly distributed among provinces, as well as between urban and rural areas. Table 2-2 shows that there is 1 health center for 8,500 people, 1 hospital bed for 770 people, and 1 health facility per 85,000 people, which is clearly insufficient to meet the medical needs of the population, and at the same time, provide appropriate medical care. Though the total number of health centers has increased twofold rising from 1,893 health centers in 1990 to 2,144 health centers in 1996, the inequitable distribution creates issues of disproportionate access to health services. Therefore, though there might be sufficient facilities for providing primary care for the country’s population, the problem of uneven geographical distribution of health care facilities and the lack of trained medical personnel in remote areas, are incongruent and remain unresolved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Health professionals and trained support staffs, valuable and indispensable assets of any health care system, are crucially scarce in the Cameroonian PHCS. Health professionals need to be trained and motivated to perform at optimal levels; however, in Cameroon, there are no incentives to encourage competent health workers to stay in the public sector or provide good quality services in the public facilities. Those health workers who remain and work in the public health sector have been primarily assigned to urban public facilities due to their general reluctance to relocate to remote areas of the country. Consequently, there exists an oversupply of qualified health providers with an attendant oversupply of infrastructure in mostly urban areas; whereas, there is an undersupply of qualified staff with the attendant undersupply of adequate infrastructures in primarily rural areas. Hence, the shortage and uneven distribution of trained health workers nationwide as well as the insufficient and disparate distribution of health facilities promote overcrowding of many public health facilities. Taken together, these prevailing conditions limit the effectiveness of health care workers, and contribute to underutilization of facilities in other areas, all resulting in inefficiency of the PHCS. The disparities of health services across the country can be noted in Table 2-2.   Inadequate Governance and Lack of Funding Apart from the decrepit health facilities, the accompanying technical support centers are also quite outdated with inept and corrupt bureaucratic administrations. Routine procedures that should normally be completed within a matter of hours can take several days to be resolved. Such ineptitude points to a lack of administrative discipline and an ingrained culture of corruption in the public healthcare system. From administrative procedures to medical procedures, patients– especially the poor– have to bribe the personnel in order to obtain medical service delivery or they have to be prepared to undergo several trips to the healthcare institution just to receive appropriate medical care. Furthermore, there is no proper management accounting system in public health facilities, raising issues of inadequate management. Earned income from performed services are not all reported and when they are it remains quite unclear which charges correspond to which services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A number of conflicting phenomena that retard effective development of PHCS have yet to be resolved or corrected. The conflict of interest and the agency problems arising when publicly employed physicians also manage public health facilities seems not to be a major concern of the MOPH. Physicians employed to serve public facilities may tend to divert patients to their own private clinics or they lack the necessary rigor and ethics in the delivery of medical care. There is therefore a clear shortage of competent and skilled healthcare managers and a lack of management leadership capacity resulting in extensive internal administrative weaknesses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The lack of strategic planning in the conception and the implementation of health projects and programs also contributes to the failure of initiated health projects. Managers at public facilities, mainly possessing only basic medical background, lack the vision, the leadership capacity and the management discipline required for the function of healthcare manager. They approve projects presented to them, for example, based on subjective (highest under the table kickback) rather than objective (impact on population health status and improvement in quality of life) considerations. They do not have competent support staff to assist them in performing business strategic evaluation, which is necessary before engaging in any project. Such preparatory analysis would include environmental scanning, strategy formulation, strategy implementation and evaluation and control of operations. Thus, the lack of strategic management capacity and the inability to learn from past mistakes and others’ experiences favor wastage of precious resources and promote inadequate governance of the PHCS.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Significantly, the PHCS is clearly under financed. Health care organizations must generate cash flow, acquire assets, and put those assets to work, just as manufacturing and banking organizations do. Though the public budget allocated to PHCS has more than doubled in the last couple of years, going from CFAF 24,048 billion or 2.16% of the national budget in 1997 to CFAF 120,844 billion or 7.82% of the national budget in 2005 (Table 2-3), it is important to note that such growth coincided with the implementation of several economic reforms and the approval of loans from the World bank (WB). Moreover, a significant amount of the monies available were heavily invested in the restructuring of some health facilities, the building of roads to increase access to care and the training of health workers. But despite the increases in government funding, the financial allocations are indeed meager considering the ongoing needs of the growing population. For instance, the structural renovations performed were certainly not sufficient to insure quality of care delivery nor were they enough to ensure increased use of health services. Furthermore, primary health care centers and district hospitals, even those with trained staffs, lack adequate technology to diagnose many infectious diseases, and they regularly run out of medical supplies and pharmaceutical drugs. External contribution to the financing of health care in government budget has increased also, rising from 26.53% of the total health investment in 1997 to 32.10% in the year 2000, as shown in Table 1-3. However, the management of such funds is troubling to the degree that in most cases health facilities do not receive the bulk of the monies from foreign financial benefactors. Internal organizational structures plagued with heavy bureaucratic barriers and heavy corruptive practices prevent the proper and fast disbursement of the external fund contributions, raising issues once again of internal dysfunctional organizational structure and inadequate governance. The lack of rigorous and transparent handling of funds leaves severe deficiencies in financial accountability and encourages false reporting and embezzlement of health funds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition, the MOPH has not been able to allocate monies equitably across the territory based upon the consideration of the geographic spread and economic need of the total population. Instead of using the donated funds for the revival of essential programs such as health prevention campaigns, immunization campaigns, information campaigns, and targeting services most frequently used by the poor, about 60% of government health expenditure is devoted to urban health facilities serving only about 20% of the population. Such preferential allocations create an issue of inequality in access and utilization of care. Moreover, households are then obligated to assign larger shares of their budgets for health expenditure. Meanwhile, the poverty rate has been steadily increasing nationwide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another factor causing the low financing of PHCS is the practice of either wrongful or unwise disbursement of funds in the sense of not considering future development and advancement. Most funds earmarked for health care development are sunk into production costs (maintenance of major equipment, payment of salaries, replenishing of inventories, and so forth) with nothing substantial left for infrastructural developments and quality improvements in delivery care. Foreign Aid and Healthcare Expenditure Essentially, external institutions have dictated a number of economic constraints on national budgetary decisions. Cameroon is one of those countries subscribed to the WB/IMF structural adjustment program (SAP) which imposed drastic cuts in the national budget for health which went from 120 billion CFAF or 3.3% of the total GDP in 2002 to 58 billion CFAF or 1% of the GDP in 2005.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The SAP policies required already indebted countries to: (1) shift from production of domestic consumption food to producing cash crops for export; (2) abolish food and agricultural subsidies to reduce government expenditure; (3) severely cut health, education, and housing program funding and reduce salaries; and (4) devaluate the currencies and privatize government-held enterprises. The reform designed to stabilize the economy exerted adverse effects instead on the economy of borrowing countries like Cameroon. In reality, [the World Bank] imposed harsh measures, which exacerbated poverty, undermined food security and self-reliance and led to resource exploitation, environmental destruction and population displacement. The health sector was particularly adversely affected, and few proactive steps were taken to protect vulnerable populations and ensure ongoing availability of basic services. Following the expenditure cuts, especially in the national budget for public health, the following conditions occurred: (1) the integrated health centers lost qualified personnel and a shortage of basic health materials ensued; (2) the training of health workers was interrupted, which in turn affected the motivation level of doctors and health workers; (3) there was a shortage of medical supplies, a breakdown of transportation and problems of inadequate management; and (4) medical consultations and hospitalization declined despite the increases in acute infectious diseases. More generally, the quality of care delivery in public facilities declined and studies showed that more patients sought care in private institutions despite their higher costs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition to all the obstacles of an already struggling PHCS, the combined effects of infectious disease epidemics of tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV/AIDS, further strained the public health sector beyond its limits. The failure of the public health system to provide appropriate medical care for individuals who had contracted these diseases– large segments of the population — led the latter to choose more expensive private medical services. Consequently, as shown in Table 2-4, the household budget for health expenditure skyrocketed and rose from 4% in 1983/84 to 9.6% in 1995/96 resulting in a household spending on health from $14 to $20.6 per capita. The increase is mainly due to elevated out-of-pocket payments charged for private medical services, raising the issue of inequality once again in the use of care. The WHO has estimated that the cost of a basic package of health care delivered to 90% of the population in a low-income country like Cameroon would be a $13 per capita (table 2-5).    However, a further analysis of the region matrix in table 2-5 and the distribution of household per capita health expenditures by population decile (which is a partial source to income group matrix) in table 2-6 reveals even more drastic inequalities in the distribution of health expenditure across income groups and between urban and rural regions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, in 1998, the per capita household expenditure for health by the poorest 10% of the population was only $5.4 while for the richest 10% it was $90.4. This translates in the utilization of private health services– more effective delivery– by the part of the population with higher income and the utilization of public facilities–less effective delivery– by the poorest portion of the population. The wide middle class will seek medical care from public, private or traditional providers based upon their current financial means.   The table 2-5 highlights the wide inequalities in the distribution of health expenditures between urban and rural areas (and to a lesser extent among rural areas). In Douala and Yaounde (the two largest towns holding about 40% of the population) the capita health expenditures were $51.9 and $46.1 respectively compared to $18.5 and $18.9 in the rural plateau and rural savanna. Such imbalances are due to the fact that households have higher incomes in urban areas, government spending is higher in urban areas and enterprises, both public and private, are concentrated in urban towns.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  An evaluation of the performance of the PHCS reveals, therefore, that the principal elements and characteristics of successful health systems including accessibility to facilities, appropriateness of medical treatments, effectiveness in access of care, efficiency in delivery of care and equity in use of care, are all seriously lacking in the Cameroonian PHCS. Effectiveness: Public Health Care System Performance In Cameroon, public health facilities perform below expectations due to organizational, managerial and financial issues. This below average performance results in reduced effectiveness of public healthcare providers, inefficiency of the PHCS and unequal access to health services by a large portion of the population who needs it the most.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Budgetary cut backs have also led to a moratorium on the construction and equipping of health facilities, a freeze on the recruiting of public health employees, and a shortage of sufficient qualified personnel. In addition, the distribution of health workers across the country is inappropriate due to discrepancies in regional distribution of health facilities. In a major way, salaries have been slashed with the attendant consequences of the lack of motivation and lower performance (low morale) among health personnel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a result overall, the main quality indicators have deteriorated in the light of WHO standards. The per capita ratio of physicians, nurses, hospital beds, health centers and pharmacies shown in Table 1-1 indicate major discrepancies in the distribution of health resources across the territory. Human resource planning is to be revised and working conditions are to be ameliorated in order to attract more care providers in the public sector, increase productivity and effectiveness of the PHCS.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Not only is there a shortage of human resource personnel, but there are also supply management deficits. Inventories are not kept accurately, so doctors and nurses can help themselves to medications directly on shelves, and supply depends on availability of resources rather than based on any demand assessment. This means that inventories and supplies are replenished whenever funds permit. Moreover, supplies are not equally distributed among health facilities. Urban health facilities tend to receive more stock and resources than rural or remote health facilities, but medication and medical materials are in more grave demand in these latter areas. In some rural facilities, syringes and surgical material such as gloves and bedding are re-used. Some facilities even lack beds for patient and the laboratory material to perform blood or other tests. Thus, equipment that are needed for the care of ill patients are regularly in excessive quantities compared to other areas, and are lacking in other areas or where there are none at all.   All these factors engendered by internal and external mismanagement at both the financial and the organizational levels affect the rate of use of public health services, and, ultimately undermine and negate the efficiency and the effectiveness of the PHCS. Efficiency: Utilization of Public Health Facilities Several constraints have arisen during the last decade, which led to a significant decrease in the utilization of the public health care system. The government suspended recruiting and training of health care personnel because of lack of funding. Table 2-1 shows that there are fewer than 20,000 health care workers for a population of almost 17,000, 000 people. The prevailing (accepted) corruption in public health facilities is manifested through the observation of health personnel offering health care services which are normally free in exchange for financial favors. In Cameroon, though many medical services such as vaccination and delivery of essential drugs, are supposed to be free of charge, more often than not, personnel charge patients with nominal fees for these services. Moreover, the culture of â€Å"clientelism† is deeply rooted in the PHCS. Notably, medical services afforded to patients are prioritized not based on the severity of patients’ illnesses, but rather on the level of rapport between the health staff and the patients or the amount of money the patients have at their disposal to be used to bribe the health staff. Health managers and health providers in the concerned facilities do not regularly investigate or follow up patients complaints simply because they belong to the same professional pool as those personnel who exploit the patients and accept bribes for routine medical care. Moreover, the lack of incentives from the MOPH to reinforce the delivery of free services and the fact that MOPH authorities are responsible for nominating those health managers, all factors which serve to undermine the effectiveness of any civil action against the malpractices observed in public health facilities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In essence, as an intern in the Hospital La Quintinie in Douala in 2000, this researcher witnessed instances when patients bribed health personnel to receive health services they had already paid for at the cash register. This researcher also saw bodies being dumped in the front yard of the hospital and remaining there for hours before being dispatched to the morgue. In another instance, this researcher was informed of an individual who had sued a physician for negligence. The doctor had received a telephone call late at night relating to the difficult delivery of one of his patients; however, the doctor had asked the nurse to deal with the issue and turned off his cell phone, which resulted in the death of the patient. However, the case was dismissed and the physician, who did not even receive a temporary suspension or a reprimand, is still working at that facility. Also, seriously ill patients are still left unattended in waiting areas for extended hours. This situation fosters long lines and extensive waiting times, altogether discouraging many patients from seeking medical care in public health facilities. The efficiency of the public health system can be judged by the utilization of the services by the people for whom they are intended. According to the North West province records, during 1989 and 1995, there were 173,450 consultations in religious missions facilities versus 129,569 at government health centers in the northwest region. In other words, there is a two fold increase in the utilization of nonprofit facilities. That data attest to the low utilization of public health care services and implies that the quality of health services delivered is inferior in the public sector and, therefore, less sought. The evidence from the northwest province suggests a steady decline in health care provision by public facilities. The share of the government in both health centers and hospital consultations fell from 72.9% in 1989 to 50.1% in 1995 while the share of mission consultations increased from 25.5% to 47% and the private sectors from 1.6% to 2.9%. The bed occupancy rate in hospitals fell from 45% in 1985 to 23% in 1996. Therefore, it becomes apparent that many patients clearly demonstrated preference for health services offered by nonprofit organizations and for profit establishments instead of those offered in the public sector. Such utilization factors underscore the failure of the PHCS in providing efficient health services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In fact, the poor, for whom public services are primarily intended, incur overall financial losses when using public health facilities. First, they must travel long distances to receive uncertain and inconsistent medical attention. Second, added to the time wasted on the road to reach health centers, they have to wait long hours to receive inadequate and inappropriate care or no care at all. The opportunity cost in terms of income loss and hours of labor is high compared to the quality of life improvement they might have gained. This prevents many low-income patients from utilizing public health facilities unless their diseases are in a well-advanced state and require immediate attention.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to the 1995 household-survey, 14.8% of health providers were traditional healers, 43.8% of consultations took place in public facilities, and 56.2% took place in private facilities– though 50% more expensive. There is a clear decrease in the utilization of public health facilities over private health clinics. The decaying public health care buildings, major components of the health care infrastructure, and the lack of competent health workers actually send negative messages to patients who, therefore, prefer to obtain appropriate care at higher costs at private institutions for those who can afford it. Table 2-7 further illustrates the low level of government health spending relative to private spending and household spending.    There is a grave degeneration of medical ethics in several public health facilities. Often, under qualified health workers perform specialized services they have not been trained for. In some hospitals, nurses are performing surgeries, delivering anesthesia and prescribing medicines. In other health facilities, the record of services provided is inaccurate and patients’ files are non-existent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The overall number of health care personnel in public health care facilities has decreased against a background of a growing population, resulting in a gap between the health services demand and the supply in the whole territory and an underutilization of public medical services. Underutilization promotes wastage in health care resources and inefficiency (low utilization) while favoring the development of over-crowding in other health units, which in itself prevents proper and adequate delivery of healthcare to patients. Moreover, the vast regional imbalances between the distribution of health care facilities and health care workers exacerbate the problem of underutilization of public health care facilities. Equity: Health Disparities Across the Nation There are significant differences in the state of health and the access to care between the poor and low-income households and the non-poor, as well as between urban and rural inhabitants. Most people turn to formal health services in cases of illness. Among those who have declared themselves ill in 2001, 3/4 was able to seek consultation at a formal health centers, versus 1/4 in informal facilities. Formal health centers are more frequently visited by the non-poor and informal facilities by the poor. It appears that non-poor seek medical help more often than the poor maybe due to superior financial capacity.    Another indicator of discrepancy between poor, non-poor, rural and urban residents is the vaccination rate. Thus, the immunization rate for non-poor children is better than that for poor children and children are better protected in cities than in rural areas. Table 2-5 reports inequality in the rate of consultation in formal and informal facilities between poor and non-poor in rural and urban areas. From that table, it appears that both income groups allocate similar budgets for health expenditure. However, the average health expenditure among the rural and poor residents is three times less than that of non-poor and urban dwellers. Thus, lower spending for health care services is reflected in the lower consultation rate of non-poor which is indicative of their health status. Thus, the infant (12 to 23 months) immunization rate for poor in rural areas was 66.9% and 53.1% for poor in urban areas while it was 89.5 for non-poor in rural areas and 70.2% for non-poor in urban areas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, the non-poor have to travel slightly lower distances to receive medical care than the poor which in turn increases their access to health services. According to regional health map data, 54% of people live less than five kilometers from an integrated health center. This average figure, however, conceals wide regional disparities, ranging from 43% of people living less than five kilometers from an integrated health center in the province of Adamaoua to 78% of people living less than five kilometers from an integrated health center in the Littoral province. Moreover, the household survey statement notes that rural people must travel five times farther than urban dwellers to reach the nearest health facility. Even more striking, 98.9% of the people who must travel 6 km to a health facility live in the countryside, indicating the serious problem of rural access to appropriate health care services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Table 2-5 shows the division of health spending in urban areas (Douala, Yaounde, and other towns) and in rural areas. From this table, it is obvious that urban dwellers spend more on health care than rural dwellers mainly due to higher income since households in cities spend on average $34 on health care versus $16.7 on average on health care, which is about half of what urban dwellers spend on healthcare. Though government spending seems to be significantly higher in comparison to direct foreign aid and religious mission share of health spending, it must be emphasized that an increasing share of MOPH budget is financed through foreign financial donations (Table 1-3).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Table 2-8 is a perfect illustration of the lack of equity in the distribution of health services (whether in formal or informal facilities) among the different population groups in Cameroon.    From Table 2-8, it appears that annual average health spending per capita is three times higher in urban than in rural areas (39,00 CFAF vs. 13, 000 CFAF) and four times higher among the non-poor than it is among the poor (32,000 CFAF Vs 6,900 CFAF). Yet the cost of health services rose nearly three times as fast as the average inflation rate over the last five years by some 70% (13,000 CFAF to 22,00 CFAF), which led to a considerable decrease in the demand for health services, especially for the poor whose utilization of health services declined. References Adamolekun, L. (Ed.). (1999). Public Administration in Africa: Main Issues and Selected Country Studies. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. McKinney, J. B., & Howard, L. C. (1998). Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Vine, V. T. (1971). The Cameroon Federal Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.